Astronomers have learned lots about the universe − but how do they study astronomical objects too distant to visit?

"Can you see a theme emerging? Astronomers can measure only a handful of apparent properties: brightness, color, position in the sky, shape, angular size and how each of these changes with time. These are the same properties each of us measures with our senses to navigate our surroundings in everyday life. They’re nothing exotic or special.

And yet everything astronomers know about distant solar systems and their formation we have derived from measurements of these familiar and unremarkable apparent properties. The rich and detailed descriptions that we’ve come to expect in astronomy and astrophysics come from applying our understanding of chemistry and physics to these measurements."

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